Discussing archaeology and the nation in six European countries : a discourse analysis

Peer reviewe

Study on quality in 3D digitisation of tangible cultural heritage.

Following the implementation of the Virtual Multimodal Museum (ViMM) project, which finished in March 2019, the European Commission issued a Declaration on Cooperation on Advancing Digitisation of Cultural Heritage during the Digital Day in April 2019. One year later, in April 2020, the European Commission (EC) launched a commercial call for tenders to develop a study on quality in 3D digitisation of tangible cultural heritage ("the study"). The tender theme is to acknowledge the increasing demand for internationally recognised standards for the holistic 3D documentation of Europe's rich cultural heritage (CH) and address the lack of standards. The study aims to map parameters, formats, standards, benchmarks, methodologies and guidelines relating to 3D digitisation of tangible cultural heritage, the different potential purposes or uses by type of tangible cultural heritage, and the degree of complexity of tangible cultural heritage. A team of researchers at the Cyprus University of Technology (CUT) leads a consortium of partners from industry and academia across Europe to conduct this unique study. This work-in-progress paper introduces the research's objectives and methodology, and presents some of its first results

The Early Christian basilicas of Amathous

Amathous, on the south coast of Cyprus, was an ancient city and one of the ancient royal cities of the island, which became home to the homonymous bishopric in the 4th century CE. Among the city’s impressive remains are the five Early Christian basilicas. The first, situated at the Acropolis of the city was uncovered by the French Archaeological mission in 1975. This is the latest of the Amathous basilicas built during the late 6th or the early 7th century CE on the foundations of the temple of Aphrodite, destroyed by an earthquake in the 6th century CE. The three-aisled basilica (25m by 24m) with the opus sectile flooring, the wall and apse mosaics and the champlevé revetments possessed a narthex, an exonarthex and several annexes. A stairway was connecting the west side of the building to the gallery above the side aisled and the narthex. The complex included additional rooms, a large cistern, and a rainwater catchment system. The basilica was abandoned at the end of the 7th century CE, prior to its destruction, for unknown reasons. The other four basilicas were excavated by the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus. The three aisled basilica (nave and aisles: 11.5m by 17m), partially built into the bedrock at the base of the Acropolis, west of the Agora, was excavated in 1961. It was dated to the end of the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th century CE. The basilica possessed a narthex and an exonarthex and an apsidal chapel, adjacent to the south side. The walls featured mosaic and marble decoration. The south nave was adorned with reliefs depicting a hunting scene, dated to the mid-5th to the early 6th century CE. The floor of the sanctuary was paved with opus sectile. The great three-aisled basilica at the east of the Agora was excavated at the beginning of the 1990’s. It was dated to the second half of the 5th century CE and is believed that it was destroyed by the Arabs between 653-654 CE. It seems that renovation has taken place soon after its destruction, while the church continued being used for some decades. This is one of the largest basilicas of Cyprus (c. 1750m2), built on the foundations of an earlier phase. The basilica possessed a baptistery, a narthex and atrium at the west side. The three aisles were paved with opus sectile. The oldest of the Amathous basilicas is the one dedicated to saint Tychon († c.425 CE), second bishop of Amathous. This is the only shrine of the island dedicated to the saint. It was excavated between 1991 and 1995. Located extra muros, north of the east gate of Amathous and adjoining a necropolis, the building which still stands today dates to the Frankish period (late 14th-early 15th century CE). The two prior phases are going back to the Early Christian period: Phase I from the late 4th or early 5th century CE; Phase II from the second half of the 5th century CE. The initial three-aisled building is most likely similar in size to the basilica at the base of the Acropolis, although it is difficult to clearly distinguish all the elements of the initial church. In Phase II, which may date around the death of saint Tychon in 450 CE, was erected the largest three-aisled basilica that included a martyrium. The basilica was destroyed during the Arab raids of 653-654 CE. It was repaired and remained in use until the 13th century CE. It was abandoned for a small period, before the erection of the Frankish church. The small five-aisled basilica of saint Barbara, in the east of Amathous, was uncovered between 1973 1974. Although its dedication is unknown, it was named after the nearby cave dedicated to saint Barbara. The sanctuary had mosaic flooring. It may have been a destination for the infirm as evidenced by the archaeological findings representing human parts. The presence of adjoining spaces, cisterns and an olive pressing suggest that the church belonged to a monastery. The basilica was likely constructed between the 5th and the 6th century CE.Non UBCUnreviewedResearche

Acheiropoietos basilica, Thessaloniki also known as “Church of the Virgin Mary Acheiropoietos, Thessaloniki”

The church of the Acheiropoietos (meaning not made by hands in Greek), dedicated to the Mother of God is located to the south-eastern part of the city of Thessaloniki (Northern Greece). It was called thus because it housed a miraculous icon of the Virgin Mary Hodegetria. The church built in the third quarter of the 5th century is the oldest among those of the city of Thessaloniki still standing and it was constructed on a Roman public baths complex, parts of which are still visible underneath and around the building. The monument was repaired during the 7th century, after the earthquake of 620-630, while the other important phase of interventions dates to the late Byzantine period (14th-15th centuries). After the Ottoman conquest of Thessaloniki in 1430, the church was converted into a mosque, called “Eski Camii”. A minaret was added in the southwest corner. After the city’s liberation in 1912 it was again converted into a church and the minaret was demolished. Acheiropoietos is a three-aisled timber-roofed basilica with galleries above the two lateral aisles, measuring 51.90 m by 30.80 m. The side exterior walls are 14 m high, while the top of the roof of the central aisle lies at a height of 22 m. The building was initially larger, as indicated by the initial exonarthex to the west, the western gallery, the outer portico to the north and the skylight of the central aisle that do not survive today. The modern roof of the church, which is lower than the original was rebuilt. The central nave, which ends at the semi-circular sanctuary with the synthronon and the bishop’s throne, is divided from the lateral aisles by two marble colonnades. To the east side of the north aisle was added in the Middle Byzantine period the chapel of saint Irene. Traces of the staircase leading to the galleries are still preserved in the north-west corner of the basilica, while the annex of the south side is thought to have been the baptistery. The floors of the central, the south aisles and of the chapel of saint Irene are covered by slabs of marble from the time of the church. Part of the mosaics that have belonged to the earlier bath-house still survive beneath the floor of the north aisle. Fragments of the 5th-century mosaic decoration that includes crosses, geometric patterns, plants, fishes and birds, chalices and baskets are still preserved: i) in the colonnade intrados on the ground floor and south gallery; ii) in the narthex; and iii) in the window of the west wall. Their dating was based on the inscription on the intrados of the south and central arch of the tribelon that mentions the donor of the mosaics (and maybe also of the basilica), Andreas, identified as the priest who participated at the Council of Chalcedon of 451, representing the Archbishop of Thessaloniki. More recently it was suggested that Andreas was probably an Archbishop of Thessaloniki. The wall above the south colonnade is adorned with frescoes from the first decades of the 13th century. From the composition, which was depicting the Forty martyrs of Sebasteia, only eighteen of the figures have survived. They are represented either full-length or in bust wearing military uniform, each holding a cross. At either end of the row of martyrs was painted a candlestick with a lighted candle. Small traces of wall-paintings are also preserved in the chapel of saint Irene. The monolithic ambo, fragments of the mosaics and the sculptural decoration of Acheiropoietos basilica are exhibited at the Museum of Byzantine Culture of Thessaloniki.Non UBCUnreviewedResearche

Barlaam and Ioasaph also known as “Barlaam and Josaphat”

Barlaam and Ioasaph is the legend of two mythical saints, enjoying remarkable popularity in the literatures of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. It exists in dozens of versions. The legend takes place sometime after apostle Thomas evangelized India. It narrates the story of the Indian prince, Ioasaph, son of the pagan king Abenner, a persecutor of the Christian Church. Ioasaph despite his father’s confinement to a palace for being isolated from contact with Christians, embraces the religion after being taught by monk Barlaam. Abenner troubled by his son’s conversion engages in more severe acts of persecutions and makes several unsuccessful attempts to make Ioasaph recant his faith. As a last resort, he tries to seduce Ioasaph with power and glory by letting him reign over the half of his kingdom. The secular, yet holy life of his son inspires conversion to Abenner who lives his last days as ascetic. After the death of Abenner, Ioasaph reigns during few more years but he then renounces his kingdom. He wanders for years through wilderness and finally finds Barlaam. After their death, their relics revered as holy are moved to the capital of the Indian kingdom where numerous miracles are performed. The story goes back to Indian legends about the life of Buddha, but it is impossible to establish a single source. From India, the legend emerged in the Arab-speaking world between 750 and 900 CE and was later translated before 900 CE into Georgian. This version was used by Euthymios the Athonite († 1028), cofounder of the monastery of Iviron on Mount Athos, for the Byzantine Greek translation assumed to have been completed shortly thereafter 985 CE. By 1019 CE the Greek revised version of the text was also in circulation. The legend was popularised in the West via a Latin translation known as the “Vulgate” and was soon adapted into several vernacular versions. Some of them derive from the Latin “Vulgate”, while others were adapted from the thirteenthcentury CE abbreviated version found in Jacobus de Voragine’s Legenda Aurea. The surviving witnesses of the different versions of the text that have come down to us are numerous. A small minority among them has received cycles of illustrations. Barlaam and Ioasaph includes a set of allegorical stories (or apologues) woven into the narrative framework of the text. These apologues were disseminated independently from it and can be found in many well-known European literary works, such as collections of fables or short stories like the Disciplina clericalis and Bocaccio’s Decameron, plays like Shakespeare’s The merchant of Venice and many others. Depictions inspired by the apologues are another proof of the wide dissemination of these apologues, since they can be found in different religious and secular monuments throughout Europe.Non UBCUnreviewedResearche

Hagia Sophia of Thessaloniki also known as “Saint Sophia”, “Holy Wisdom”

The church dedicated to the Holy Wisdom, or the Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia in Greek), is located to the south-eastern part of the city of Thessaloniki (Northern Greece). It has served as the Metropolitan church of Thessaloniki and during the Latin occupation of the city (1204-1224), it became the Latin cathedral. The present building was built at the end of the 7th century, over the remains of a much larger five-aisled basilica dedicated to saint Mark, destroyed by the big earthquake of 620. Hagia Sophia is almost square in plan with a tripartite sanctuary projecting from its eastern end. It belongs to the type of transitional crossin- square church, an evolution of the basilica with a dome. The nave measuring around 31 x 29 m (excluding the apse) is covered by a large cubic dome pierced by 12 arched windows, projecting above the timber roof. The dome which collapsed during the earthquakes of 813-820 and was replaced, is supported by four barrel vaults departing from four large piers at the corners of the central space. Each pier is divided into sections by arches that are wider on the ground level, while above are smaller and double. The church possesses lateral aisles divided from the central nave by colonnades alternating columns and narrow piers, a narthex and galleries above them, with the west gallery being a 10th century addition. The lead seals carrying names of bishops and other ecclesiastics discovered in the southwest corner of the west gallery suggest that this space may well have been used by the Church administration. Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessaloniki (1347-1359) and the leading figure of the hesychastic movement, was buried in Hagia Sophia. In 1430, following the capture of Thessaloniki by the Ottomans, the church was converted into a mosque. What remains from that period is the tower on the north-western corner of the church, probably the basis of a minaret. Following the city’s liberation in 1912 it was again converted into a church. The monument was destroyed by fire in 1890. It was restored between 1907 and 1909 by a team led by Charles Diehl and was inaugurated on 29 June 1913. Following the earthquakes of 1978, Hagia Sophia was restored again, and excavations were undertaken inside the monument and in its adjacent courtyard. The mosaic decoration of Hagia Sophia belongs to different phases. The original mosaics in the sanctuary are dated between 780 and 797, based on the presence of a colossal cross and the monograms of emperor Constantine VI and Irene. In the dome is depicted the Ascension of Christ. Below Christ, seated in a rainbow, stands the Virgin flanked by two angels. Around them are assembled the twelve Apostles. The information provided by the inscription that accompanies the scene, indicating that it was added under the Archbishop of Thessaloniki Paul, permitted to identify him as the friend of Patriarch Photios of Constantinople and thus to estimate the mosaic’s creation to the 88o’s. In the semi-dome of the apse was installed the Virgin enthroned holding Christ, either contemporary with the mosaic of the dome; or, an 11th-century addition. The composition replaced an iconoclastic cross. The church had mosaic flooring and its walls were covered with marble slabs. The marble columns and their capitals come from an earlier building. In the 11th century Hagia Sophia was decorated with frescoes, still surviving at the windows of the narthex. Their creation is contemporary to the addition of the narthex, after 1037. The church contained also a four-columned sepulchral monument embedded within the south-eastern pier cluster decorated with frescoes by two different painters. It was dated around the first quarter of the 13th century, when the city was liberated from the Latins. The parts of the tomb that have survived, fragments of the monument’s frescoes, of its mosaic decoration, as well as the marble slabs of the church are exhibited at the Museum of Byzantine Culture of Thessaloniki; while its marble ambo transferred to Istanbul in 1905, is currently displayed at the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul.Non UBCUnreviewedResearche

Book Production in Cyprus (9th-12th century). The illustrated manuscripts as evidence of artistic production on the island

La recherche récente a permis d’attribuer à Chypre un nombre significatif de manuscrits grecs enluminés. Cet article concerne les plus anciens d’entre eux datant du IXe au XIIe s. apr. J.-C. Dans un premier temps, nous allons présenter les manuscrits recensés jusqu’à présent. Quelques remarques préliminaires seront ensuite émises sur la façon dont les changements sociaux ont pu influencer la production et la réception d’artefacts, et plus particulièrement, des manuscrits enluminés. La deuxième partie sera consacrée à l’examen de deux manuscrits attribués à Chypre (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Laud 66, et Cambridge, University Library, Add. 4491/ Ioannina, Zosimaia Schole, 1/ New York, Columbia University Library, Plimpton 9), qui constituent des cas particulièrement appropriés pour mettre en évidence le contexte de production de manuscrits enluminés dans l’île à l’époque concernée.Toumpouri Marina. Book Production in Cyprus (9th-12th century). The illustrated manuscripts as evidence of artistic production on the island. In: Cahiers du Centre d'Etudes Chypriotes. Volume 43, 2013. pp. 307-328

Basilica of Saint Demetrios

The cross-transept basilica dedicated to saint Demetrios the Myroblyte (the myrrh-gusher), located in the centre of the city of Thessaloniki (Northern Greece), was considered a major pilgrimage. It is believed that it was built by the Roman governor named Leontios in the third quarter of the 5th century CE, following the transfer of the cult of Saint Demetrios from Sirmium (present day city of Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) to Thessaloniki. The first church on the site was constructed in the early 4th century on a complex of Roman buildings, including a bath that was incorporated in the crypt, under the sanctuary. This was the place where, according to tradition, the saint was imprisoned and martyred. The crypt became since the early Christian period the main place of worship of the martyr, and was related to the belief that myrrh flowed from his wounds. Pilgrims were therefore entering the small semi circular room with the ciborium in the middle, for receiving the miraculous myrrh. The 5th-century church was burnt between 629 and 634 but was restored immediately thereafter, under the care of the bishop of Thessaloniki and Leo the eparch, as mentioned by the mosaic inscription that accompanies the depiction of the saint and the two individuals. The 7th-century church retained the precedent form of the basilica, reincorporating large parts of it as well. Fire destroyed again the monument in 1917, which was rebuilt with original materials and fragments. The basilica has five aisles separated by four rows of columns with two pairs of large piers interposed amongst the columns of the central aisle. The church also includes a three-aisled transept at the east, galleries, and low clerestory windows. Each wing of the transept is separated into three parts by a Π-shaped colonnade. The cenotaph of saint Demetrios was placed in the chapel incorporated into the north-west end of the north aisles. To the southeast corner of the basilica was added a small three-aisled chapel dedicated to saint Euthymios. It was frescoed in 1303, at the behest of protostrator Michael Glavas Tarchaneiotis and his wife Maria Palaiologina. The program of the chapel is typical of the period, with scenes from the Dodekaorton, the miracles and teaching of Christ, and episodes from the life of saint Euthymios. Apart from the sculptural decoration of the capitals, the cornices, the impost blocks of the pilasters, the intrados of the tribelon and the wings in a variety of forms and styles, parts of the original marble revetment and the panels of opus sectile are still preserved on the walls. The basilica also contains the marble funerary monument of a wealthy merchant and notable of the city of Thessaloniki, Loukas Spantounis, buried there just after 1481. The mosaic decoration of the basilica was not destroyed completely by the fire of 1917. Fragments are still preserved on the two large piers at the east of the sanctuary and the west wall of the nave. The mosaic panels were not created as a part of an iconographic program, but were commissioned independently; some of them dating from before the 7th century fire, some date from the period of reconstruction that followed the fire, while the latest ones are 11th-century creations. They depict saint Demetrios orans with donors and in other cases they commemorate the saint’s actions and miracles. The 9th-century mosaic panel depicts the Virgin and a military Saint in an attitude of supplication with Christ blessing from the heavens. Two more fragments of mosaics were detached and are currently displayed at the White Tower of Thessaloniki. The basilica was also decorated with frescoes destroyed during the fire of 1917. The ones that have survived depict scenes from the life of saint Demetrios. On the south wall survives a scene depicting a mounted emperor (identified as either Justinian II or Basil II) entering the city. On the second pier of the colonnade, south of the central aisle was represented in the 11th century venerable (Osios in Greek) Loukas Steiriotis, a 10th-century saint. On the first pier of the same colonnade was depicted between 1360-1380 saint Ioasaph with a church father. A Deisis (Christ flanked by Virgin Mary and Saint John the Baptist) and Christ enthroned painted in the 14th century were uncovered after the restoration of the monument, following the fire of 1917.Non UBCUnreviewedResearche

Cathedral of Hagia Sophia also known as “Cathedral of Saint Sophia”, “Cathedral of Holy Wisdom”

The church dedicated to the Holy Wisdom, or the Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia in Greek) was built by emperor Justinian I in the 6th century (532-537 CE), under the direction of the architects Anthemios of Tralles and Isidore of Militos. It was inaugurated on 27 December 537. The first church on the site was a basilica built in the 4th century by emperor Constantius II, inaugurated in 360. This building known also as the Great Church was burned down in 404 by the supporters of John Chrysostom, then Patriarch of Constantinople. The domed basilica built by emperor Theodosios II was completed in 415 and was destroyed in 532, again by fire, during the revolt of Nika. The domed basilica of Saint Sophia combines a longitudinal and centralised planning. The nearly square nave which measures 78 x 72 m (excluding the two narthexes) is covered by a huge dome of 31 m in diameter and two semidomes. The three aisles with galleries above are separated by two rows of columns made of finest marble. Likely, the lower parts of the walls are covered with marble slabs and opus sectile decoration, still well preserved. The building still standing is essentially the 6th-century construction apart from the dome which collapsed partially in 558 by an earthquake. It was rebuilt by Isidore the Younger and was dedicated on 24 December 562. The dome collapsed partially two more times and was rebuilt higher than the original one, while the whole construction was reinforced externally. In 1317 were added the huge exterior buttresses. The church underwent again restoration, following the collapse of the east arch in 1346, which brought down the east semidome and a part of the dome. The church and its surrounding structures compose a complex that includes: to the west a colonnaded atrium with a fountain; to the north a baptistery; and, at the northeast corner a sacristy. The cathedral was the liturgical centre of Constantinople and as such, its south side was flanked to the patriarchal palace built between 565 and 577. A passage at its south-east corner was connecting Hagia Sophia to the Great imperial palace. The 6th-century mosaic decoration of the church was largely non-figural as attested by the surviving fragments, such as those in the side aisles or the narthex’s vaulting. After the end of the Iconoclastic Controversy (8th-9th centuries) the church was redecorated. Part of the program is still preserved. In the apse an enthroned Virgin with Child; two archangels in the arch of the bema; Prophets and Fathers of the Church in the tympana (north and south walls) beneath the dome. In the gallery vaults it is known to have existed narrative scenes (Isaiah’s vision, Baptism of Christ, Pentecost). In the 10th century was added in the lunette of the southwest vestibule a depiction of Virgin enthroned with Christ, between Justinian I and Constantine holding respectively a model of the church and of the city of Constantinople. In the lunette above the “imperial door” (the central door between the inner narthex and the nave) was added around 900 a mosaic of Christ enthroned with an unnamed prostrate emperor. In the 11th and 12th centuries were added in the south gallery preserved for imperial use, mosaics depicting emperors and empresses. In the first, installed between 1028-1034, were depicted empress Zoe and her first husband, Romanos III, who was replaced between 1042 1055 by her third husband, Constantine IX Monomachos. Around 1118-1134 was added a mosaic depicting the Virgin with Child standing between emperor John II and empress Irini. In the late 13th century was installed in the south gallery the mosaic depicting the Deisis (Christ flanked by Virgin Mary and Saint John the Baptist). In 1204 Hagia Sophia was looted by the Crusaders and the Venetians on the Fourth Crusade. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 the church was converted into a mosque, with the addition of minarets, a great chandelier, a mihrab and a minbar. In 1935 the monument was secularised and turned into a museum, while in 2020 it was converted back into a mosque.Non UBCUnreviewedResearche

Defense of Icon Veneration by John of Damascus

The three treatises on the holy icons by St. John of Damascus were written during the first phase of the iconoclastic conflict, between the years 726 and 730-731 CE, on the occasion of the uproar caused in Byzantium after the issue of a decree by the emperor Leo III the Isaurian, which forbade the faithful to kneel in front of the holy icons and ordered that the icons should be hanged higher, so that it would not be possible to worship them. Despite the careful wording of the first decrees issued by emperor Leo, the rage of the iconoclasts against the holy icons did not take long to show its true face, as they were also opposed to the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the relics of the saints. Thus, iconoclasm took on explosive proportions and afflicted Byzantium and the Orthodox Church for more than 110 years. Among the reactions provoked by emperor Leo's measures against the holy icons were the intense theological debates, in which John of Damascus took part. John was a monk, priest, hymnographer, and apologist. He was born and raised in Damascus circa 675 to a prominent Damascene Christian Arab family. His father, Sarjun ibn Mansur, served as an official of the early Umayyad Caliphate. John was a savant, whose fields of interest and contribution included law, theology, philosophy, and music. He became a priest and monk at Mar Saba monastery near Jerusalem and undertook a spirited defence of the holy images in three separate treatises. The earliest among these works is his “Apologetic Treatises against those Decrying the Holy Images”. The purpose of this first treatise was not to defeat the rival iconoclasts, but to offer a helping hand to the truth. However, because the content of his treatise was not properly understood, John was motivated to write a second treatise shortly following a second decree issued by emperor Leo. John wrote a third treatise in late 730 or early 731, where he attempted a more systematic account of the teaching on the holy icons, the veneration of the Virgin Mary, the saints and the holy relics. According to Damascene, the iconoclastic notions that the miracles, passions and achievements of Christ and the saints are not allowed to be depicted, is nothing but an evil inspiration, as are all heresies. In the case of the holy icons, the devil envies man because, by honouring the holy icons he can see the image of Christ and be sanctified through Him. According to Damascene, the purpose for which the holy icons are made is to reveal and show things that refer to the invisible reality, for which direct and complete knowledge cannot be otherwise accessed. This is considered an aid for one’s spiritual benefit and, ultimately, salvation. The concept of “holy icon” includes inter alia the following types: the “physical” image because the physical existence comes first and then the imitation follows. More specifically, and as far as the holy icons are concerned, the first natural and unchanging image of the invisible God is his Son, Jesus Christ, who revealed the Father through himself. Another kind of image is man, who was created in the image and likeness of God. In addition, there is the painted image, which represents shapes, forms and types of the invisible and incorporeal in a perceptible way, in order to obtain a vague idea of God and the angels, since it is impossible to perceive and understand the incorporeal without figures. There are also the icons that represent religious events, miracles or virtues in order to be preserved in the memory of the faithful and as a glorification for those who excelled in virtue. Damascene concludes that we worship only God creator, for the veneration given to the icon passes over to its prototype. Decades after John Damascene’s death, presumably at Mar Saba monastery on 4 December 749, his writings would play an important role during the Second Council of Nicaea (787), which was convened in order to settle the icon dispute.Non UBCUnreviewedResearche